Dear visitors, in this section you can learn about some medieval wars ...
(for each war there is a link to the map)
www.medievalmuseum.ru/12history/14_100years_war/war_map_big.jpg
A century-long war is rather not a war between England and France, but a series of conflicts that lasted from 1337 to 1453, mainly in the territory of the Kingdom of France.
The war lasted 116 years, and it had a non-permanent character, as it continued intermittently. The entire hundred-year war can be divided into four periods:
- Edwardian war (the period lasted from 1337 - 1360gg.);
- Carolingian war (lasted from 1369 to 1396gg.);
- Lancaster war (lasted from 1415 - 1428gg);
- and the final period of the hundred-year war (from 1428 to 1453);
Causes of the Hundred Years' War
The war began because of disputes over the succession of the throne of the kingdom of France. English King Edward claimed his rights to the throne of France in connection with the law of salvation. In addition, the English king wanted to return the lands lost by his father. The new French King Philip VI demanded from the English monarch to recognize him as the sovereign ruler of France. Also, the warring parties had a constant conflict over the possession of Gascony, the British retained the right to own it in exchange for recognition of Philip as a sovereign king.
But when Edward went to war with France's ally of Scotland, the French king began to prepare a plan to capture Gascony and disembark his troops on the territory of the British Isles.
The Hundred Years War began with the landing of the British army in France, and their further offensive on Picardy (territory in the Northeast of France).
Сourse of war
As already mentioned, the first move was made by the English King Edward, invading the territory of Picardy in 1337. During this period, the French fleet was completely dominant in the English Channel, which prevented the British from acting more confidently. They constantly had a threat that the French army would land on the territory of England and, moreover, in such a situation it was impossible to undertake mass transfer of troops to the territory of France. The situation changed in 1340, when the English fleet defeated the French in the sea battle at Sleis. Now the English were already in full control of the English Channel.In 1346, Eduard led a large army and landed near the city of Caen, and then during the day he captured the city itself, which shocked the French command, no one expected the city to fall in just one day. Philip moved to meet Edward and the two armies clashed at the Battle of Crecy. August 26, 1346, there was a famous battle, which is considered to be the beginning of the end of the era of chivalry. The French army, despite the numerical advantage, was overwhelmed, the French knights could do nothing against the English archers, who showered them with a real hail of arrows, both from the front and from the flank.In connection with the plague epidemic, the countries stopped fighting, as the disease claimed hundreds of times more lives than the war. But after the epidemic ceased to rage, in 1356 the son of King Edward the Black Prince, with a new, even larger army, invaded the territory of Gascony. In response to these actions, the French withdrew their army to meet the British. September 19, both armies met in the famous battle of Poitiers. The French again outnumbered the British. However, despite this advantage, the British thanks to successful maneuvers were able to the army of the French and even take prisoner of the King of France, John the Good, the son of Philip VI. To redeem his king, France gave a ransom the size of the country's two-year income. This was a crushing defeat of the French military thought, finally, they were able to understand that not a numerical advantage solves the outcome of the battle, but a successful command and maneuvers on the battlefield.The first stage of the war ended with the signing of the Breton Peace in 1360. Edward as a result of his campaign received half of the territory of Brittany, the whole of Aquitaine, Poitiers, Calais. France has lost a third of its territory.The world lasted nine years, until the new King of France Charles V declared war on England, wanting to restore the territories that had been lost earlier. During the truce, the French managed to reorganize the army and again build up their military power. The British army was fascinated by the war on the Iberian Peninsula, because of which the French achieved a number of important victories in the seventies of the fourteenth century, thereby regaining a number of previously occupied territories. After the death of King Edward and his son Black Prince, the young King Richard II rose to the throne. The King's inexperience was taken advantage of by Scotland, thus beginning the war. This war the British lost, bearing a heavy defeat at the Battle of Otterburn. England was forced to conclude an unprofitable world for her.After Richard, Henry IV, who planned to take revenge from the French, ascended the throne of England. But the offensive had to be debugged because of the difficult situation in the country, it was basically a war with Scotland, Wales. But when the situation in the country returned to normal, a new offensive began in 1415.Heinrich himself was unable to carry out his invasion of France, but his son Henry V succeeded in doing it. The English king landed in France and decided to move to Paris, but he lacked food and to the meeting the French put forward a large army superior to the English in number. Henry was forced to prepare for the defense with a small settlement of Azincourt.It was there that the famous battle began at Agincourt, as a result of which the English archers defeated the heavy French riders and inflicted a crushing defeat on France. As a result of this victory, the King of England managed to capture the territory of Normandy and the key cities: Caen and Rouen. Over the next five years, Henry managed to capture almost half of all French lands. To stop the seizure of France, King Charles VI concluded with Henry the end of the world, the main condition was the succession of the throne of France. From this moment on, all the kings of England had the title of King of France.Win Henry ended in 1421, when the battle entered the Scottish troops, defeated the British army in the battle of God. In this battle, the British lost their command, because of which they lost the battle. Soon after this, Henry V dies, and his young son rises to the throne.Despite the defeat, the British quickly recovered and already in 1423 responded to the French revenge, defeating them in the Battle of Kravan, again destroying the army, exceeding in number. It was followed by several more important victories for the British army, and France was in a serious, difficult situation.
In 1428 there was a crucial battle at Orleans. It was on the day of this battle that a bright figure appeared - Joan of Arc, who broke through the defense of the British and thereby brought an important victory to France. The following year, the French army, under the command of Jana D'Arc, again defeated the British at the Battle of Pate. This time the numerical advantage of the English played a cruel joke on them, this battle can be called a mirror of the battle of Azankura.In 1431 Jeanne was captured by the British and executed, but this could no longer affect the outcome of the war, the French rallied and continued to aggressively attack. From that moment the French army began to liberate one city after another, displacing the British from their country. The last blow to the power of England was inflicted in 1453 in the Battle of Castiglione. This battle became famous thanks to the first successful application of artillery, which played a key role in battle. The British were completely overwhelmed and all their attempts to reverse the course of the war were completely over.This was the last battle of the hundred-year war, followed by the capitulation of the garrison of Bordeaux - the last key focus of the defense of the British in Gascony.Consequences of the warThe official peace treaty was not signed within a decade, but the war ceased and the British abandoned their claims to the throne. The British failed to achieve their goals, despite the initial success of the campaigns, in their possession there was only one major city of Calais and nearby territories. Due to the defeat in England, the War of the White and the Scarlet Rose began.The role of infantry on the battlefield was increased, and chivalry gradually declined. For the first time regular regular armies appeared, in exchange for the militia. The English bow demonstrated its advantage over the crossbow, but most importantly, it was the beginning of the development of firearms in Western Europe and for the first time artillery firearms were successfully used.
Speech in the First Crusade was scheduled for August 15, 1096. But before the preparations for it were over, crowds of the common people, led by Peter the Hermit and the French knight Walter Golyak, set off across Germany and Hungary without money and supplies. Sowing along the way to plunder and all kinds of excesses, they were partly exterminated by the Hungarians and Bulgarians, partly reached the Greek Empire. Byzantine emperor Alexei Komnin hurried to transport them through the Bosporus to Asia, where they were finally killed by the Turks in the Battle of Nicaea (October 1096). The first disorderly crowd was followed by others: thus, 15,000 Germans and Lorraine, led by the priest Gottschalk, went through Hungary and, after being beaten by Jews in the Rhine and Danube cities, were exterminated by the Hungarians.The present militia acted in the First Crusade only in the autumn of 1096, in the form of 300,000 well-armed and perfectly disciplined soldiers, led by the most valiant and noble knights of the time: next to Gottfried Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, the chief leader, and his brothers Baldwin and Eustathius (Eustache), shone; Count Hugo Vermandois, brother of the French King Philip I, Duke Robert of Normandy (brother of the English King), Count Robert of Flanders, Raimund of Toulouse and Stefan of Chartres, Bohemond, Prince of Tarentum, Tancred Apulia and others. As a papal viceroy and legate, the army was accompanied by Bishop Ademar of Monteil.The participants of the First Crusade arrived in various ways to Constantinople, where the Greek Emperor Alexei forced them to take the oath of allegiance and the promise to recognize him as a feudal lord of future conquests. In early June 1097 the army of the Crusaders appeared before Nicaea, the capital of the Seljuk Sultan, and after the capture of the latter was subjected to extreme difficulties and hardship. However, they were taken by Antioch, Edessa (1098) and finally on June 15, 1099, Jerusalem, then in the hands of the Egyptian Sultan, unsuccessfully trying to restore his power and shattered on his head under Askalon.At the end of the First Crusade, Gottfried Bouillon was proclaimed the first Jerusalem king, but refused this title, calling himself "the defender of the Holy Sepulcher"; the following year he died, and his brother Baldwin I (1100-1118) succeeded him, having conquered Akka, Berith (Beirut) and Sidon. Baldwin I was succeeded by Baldwin II (1118-31), and the last Fulk (1131-43), under which the kingdom reached its widest extent.Under the influence of the news of the conquest of Palestine in 1101, a new army of crusaders led by the Duke of Wulf of Bavaria from Germany and two others from Italy and France moved to Asia Minor, totaling an army of 260,000 men and exterminated by the Seljuks.
In 1144, Edessa was taken away by the Turks, after which Pope Eugene III declared the Second Crusade (1147-1149), freeing all the Crusaders not only from their sins, but at the same time from the responsibilities of their lords. The dreamy preacher Bernard Clairworthy managed, thanks to his irresistible eloquence, to draw to the Second Crusade the King of French Louis VII and Emperor Conrad III of Hohenstaufen. The two armies, composed in total, according to the assurances of the Western chroniclers, about 140,000 platoon riders and a million infantrymen, came out in 1147 and headed through Hungary and Constantinople and Asia Minor. Due to a lack of food, diseases in the troops and after several major defeats, a plan for winning Edessa was abandoned, and the attempted attack on Damascus failed. Both sovereigns returned to their domains, and the Second Crusade ended in complete failure
The occasion for the Third Crusade (1189-1192) was the conquest of Jerusalem on October 2, 1187 by the powerful Egyptian sultan Saladin (see article Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin). Three European sovereigns participated in this campaign: Emperor Frederick I of Barbarossa, French King Philip II Augustus and English Richard the Lionheart. The first to enter the Third Crusade was Friedrich, whose army along the way increased to 100,000 people; he chose the path along the Danube, along the road was to overcome the intrigues of the incredulous Greek emperor Isaac Angel, whom only the capture of Adrianople prompted an easy passage to the crusaders and help them to cross into Asia Minor. Here Friedrich defeated the Turkish troops in two battles, but soon after that he drowned while crossing the river Kalikadn (Salef). His son, Frederick, led the army further through Antioch to Akka, where he found other crusaders, but soon died. The city of Akka in 1191 surrendered to surrender to the French and English kings, but the discord between them opened up the French king to return to their homeland. Richard continued to pursue the Third Crusade, but despairing in the hope of conquering Jerusalem in 1192 concluded with Saladin a truce for three years and three months, according to which Jerusalem remained in the possession of the Sultan, and Christians received a coastal strip from Tire to Jaffa, as well as the right of free visiting the Holy Sepulcher.
The fourth crusade (1202-1204) was originally intended for Egypt, but its participants agreed to help the exiled Emperor Isaac the Angel in his quest to ascend again to the Byzantine throne, which was crowned with success. Isaac soon died, and the Crusaders, deviating from their goal, continued the war and took Constantinople, after which the leader of the Fourth Crusade, Count Baldwin of Flanders, was elected emperor of the new Latin Empire, which existed, however, only 57 years (1204-1261).
Not taking into account the strange Crusade of the children in 1212, caused by the desire to experience the reality of God's will, the Fifth Crusade can be called the campaign of King Andrew II of Hungary and Duke Leopold VI of Austria to Syria (1217-1221). At first, it was sluggish, but after the arrival of new reinforcements from the West, the Crusaders moved to Egypt and took the key to access this country from the sea - the city of Damietta. However, the attempt to capture the large Egyptian center of Mansour has not succeeded. The Knights left Egypt, and the Fifth Crusade ended with the restoration of the former borders.
Sixth Crusade (1228-1229) made the German Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, who found support in rytsaryahTevtonskogo awards and has achieved from the Egyptian Sultan al-Kamil (threatened the Sultan of Damascus), a ten-year truce with the right of ownership of Jerusalem and almost all lands once conquered by the Crusaders. At the end of the Sixth Crusade, Friedrich II was crowned by the Jerusalem crown. Violation of the truce by some pilgrims led again to the struggle for Jerusalem and its final loss in 1244, as a result of the attack of the Turkish tribe of the Khorezmians, who had been ousted from the Caspian region by the Mongols during the movement of the latter to Europe.
The fall of Jerusalem was caused by the Seventh Crusade (1248-1254) of Louis IX of France, who, during a grave illness, vowed to fight for the Holy Sepulcher. In 1249 he besieged Damietta, but was captured with a large part of his army. By cleansing Damietta and paying a large foreclosure, Louis was freed and, remaining in Akka, was engaged in the provision of Christian possessions in Palestine, until the death of his mother Blanqui (regent of France) did not recall him to his homeland.
Because of the complete futility of the Seventh Crusade same king of France, Louis IX, Saint undertook in 1270 goduVosmoy (and last) Crusade to Tunis, allegedly with the intention to convert to Christianity, the prince of that country, but in reality in order to win over Tunisia for his brother, Charles of Anjou. At the siege of the capital of Tunisia, Louis the Sacred (1270) died of pestilence, which destroyed most of his troops.
In 1286 he went to Turkey, Antioch, in 1289 - the Lebanese Tripoli, and in 1291 - Akka, the last major possession of the Christians in Palestine, after which they were forced to abandon the rest of the holdings, and the entire Holy Land joined again in the hands of the Moslems. Thus ended the Crusades, which cost the Christians so many losses and did not reach the originally intended goal.
But they did not remain without a profound influence on the whole storehouse of social and economic life of Western European peoples. A consequence of the Crusades can be considered as the increasing power and importance of the popes as their main instigators, hereinafter - the rise of royal power due to the loss of many feudal lords, the appearance of independence of the urban communities that have received thanks to the impoverishment of the nobility, to buy relief from their rulers PARTICULAR; The introduction in Europe of handicrafts and arts borrowed from the Eastern peoples. The results of the Crusades were an increase in the class of free farmers in the West, thanks to the liberation from serfdom of the peasants who participated in the campaigns. The Crusades contributed to the success of trade, opening to it new ways to the East; fostered the development of geographical knowledge; expanding the scope of mental and moral interests, they enriched poetry with new stories. Another important result of the Crusades was the nomination of the secular knightly class to the historical scene, which constituted an ennobling element of medieval life; The consequence was also the emergence of spiritual and knightly orders (the Ioannites, the Templars and the Teutons), which played an important role in history.
The best that history gives us is its enthusiasm.
GoetheThe Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1583. During the war, Ivan the Terrible sought to gain access to and seize the port cities of the Baltic Sea, which should significantly improve the economic situation in Russia, by improving trade. In this article we will talk briefly about the Levon war, as well as all its aspects.
The beginning of the Livonian War
The sixteenth century was a period of uninterrupted wars. The Russian state sought to protect itself from its neighbors and return lands that had previously been part of Ancient Rus.
Wars were conducted in several directions:
The eastern direction was marked by the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, as well as the beginning of the development of Siberia.
The southern direction of foreign policy represented an age-old struggle with the Crimean Khanate.
The western direction is the events of the long, heavy and very bloody Livonian War (1558-1583), which will be discussed.
Livonia is a region in the eastern Baltic. On the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia. In those days there was a state created as a result of crusading conquests. As a state entity, it was weak because of national contradictions (the Baltic people were put to feudal dependence), a religious split (the Reformation penetrated there), a struggle for power among the top.
Ivan the Terrible launched the Livonian War against the backdrop of the success of his foreign policy in other areas. The Russian prince-king sought to push the state's borders to the reserve in order to gain access to the shipping areas and ports of the Baltic Sea. And the Livonian Order gave the Russian Tsar the ideal reasons for the outbreak of the Livonian War:
Refusal to pay tribute. In 1503 the draft of the Livonian Order and Russia signed a document according to which the first undertook to pay the city of Yuryev an annual tribute. In 1557 the Order of this obligation was individually eliminated.
Weakening of the foreign influence of the Order against the backdrop of social disagreements.Speaking of the reason, it should be emphasized that Livonia separated Russia from the sea, blocked trade. In the seizure of Livonia, large merchants and nobles were interested, who wanted to assign new lands. But the main reason can be distinguished ambitions Ivan IV the Terrible. The victory was to strengthen his influence, so he waged war, ignoring the circumstances and the meager opportunities of the country for his own greatness.The course of the war and major eventsThe Livonian War was waged with great interruptions and historically divided into four stages.
The Yam-Zapol truce between the Russian kingdom and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1582 put an end to a long and unnecessary war. Russia refused from Livonia. The coast of the Gulf of Finland was lost. He was captured by Sweden, with whom in 1583 the Plusus world was signed.Thus, it is possible to single out the following reasons for the defeat of the Russian state, which sums up the results of the Liiv war:
adventurism and ambitions of the tsar - Russia could not wage war simultaneously with three powerful states;
the pernicious influence of oprichnina, economic ruin, the Tatar attack.
Deep economic crisis within the country, which erupted in the 3rd and 4th stages of military operations.Despite the negative outcome, it was the Livonian War that determined the direction of Russia's foreign policy for many years to come - to gain access to the Baltic Sea.
(for each war there is a link to the map)
Hundred Years' War: Causes, Course and Consequences
A century-long war is rather not a war between England and France, but a series of conflicts that lasted from 1337 to 1453, mainly in the territory of the Kingdom of France.
The war lasted 116 years, and it had a non-permanent character, as it continued intermittently. The entire hundred-year war can be divided into four periods:
- Edwardian war (the period lasted from 1337 - 1360gg.);
- Carolingian war (lasted from 1369 to 1396gg.);
- Lancaster war (lasted from 1415 - 1428gg);
- and the final period of the hundred-year war (from 1428 to 1453);
Causes of the Hundred Years' War
The war began because of disputes over the succession of the throne of the kingdom of France. English King Edward claimed his rights to the throne of France in connection with the law of salvation. In addition, the English king wanted to return the lands lost by his father. The new French King Philip VI demanded from the English monarch to recognize him as the sovereign ruler of France. Also, the warring parties had a constant conflict over the possession of Gascony, the British retained the right to own it in exchange for recognition of Philip as a sovereign king.
But when Edward went to war with France's ally of Scotland, the French king began to prepare a plan to capture Gascony and disembark his troops on the territory of the British Isles.
The Hundred Years War began with the landing of the British army in France, and their further offensive on Picardy (territory in the Northeast of France).
Сourse of war
As already mentioned, the first move was made by the English King Edward, invading the territory of Picardy in 1337. During this period, the French fleet was completely dominant in the English Channel, which prevented the British from acting more confidently. They constantly had a threat that the French army would land on the territory of England and, moreover, in such a situation it was impossible to undertake mass transfer of troops to the territory of France. The situation changed in 1340, when the English fleet defeated the French in the sea battle at Sleis. Now the English were already in full control of the English Channel.In 1346, Eduard led a large army and landed near the city of Caen, and then during the day he captured the city itself, which shocked the French command, no one expected the city to fall in just one day. Philip moved to meet Edward and the two armies clashed at the Battle of Crecy. August 26, 1346, there was a famous battle, which is considered to be the beginning of the end of the era of chivalry. The French army, despite the numerical advantage, was overwhelmed, the French knights could do nothing against the English archers, who showered them with a real hail of arrows, both from the front and from the flank.In connection with the plague epidemic, the countries stopped fighting, as the disease claimed hundreds of times more lives than the war. But after the epidemic ceased to rage, in 1356 the son of King Edward the Black Prince, with a new, even larger army, invaded the territory of Gascony. In response to these actions, the French withdrew their army to meet the British. September 19, both armies met in the famous battle of Poitiers. The French again outnumbered the British. However, despite this advantage, the British thanks to successful maneuvers were able to the army of the French and even take prisoner of the King of France, John the Good, the son of Philip VI. To redeem his king, France gave a ransom the size of the country's two-year income. This was a crushing defeat of the French military thought, finally, they were able to understand that not a numerical advantage solves the outcome of the battle, but a successful command and maneuvers on the battlefield.The first stage of the war ended with the signing of the Breton Peace in 1360. Edward as a result of his campaign received half of the territory of Brittany, the whole of Aquitaine, Poitiers, Calais. France has lost a third of its territory.The world lasted nine years, until the new King of France Charles V declared war on England, wanting to restore the territories that had been lost earlier. During the truce, the French managed to reorganize the army and again build up their military power. The British army was fascinated by the war on the Iberian Peninsula, because of which the French achieved a number of important victories in the seventies of the fourteenth century, thereby regaining a number of previously occupied territories. After the death of King Edward and his son Black Prince, the young King Richard II rose to the throne. The King's inexperience was taken advantage of by Scotland, thus beginning the war. This war the British lost, bearing a heavy defeat at the Battle of Otterburn. England was forced to conclude an unprofitable world for her.After Richard, Henry IV, who planned to take revenge from the French, ascended the throne of England. But the offensive had to be debugged because of the difficult situation in the country, it was basically a war with Scotland, Wales. But when the situation in the country returned to normal, a new offensive began in 1415.Heinrich himself was unable to carry out his invasion of France, but his son Henry V succeeded in doing it. The English king landed in France and decided to move to Paris, but he lacked food and to the meeting the French put forward a large army superior to the English in number. Henry was forced to prepare for the defense with a small settlement of Azincourt.It was there that the famous battle began at Agincourt, as a result of which the English archers defeated the heavy French riders and inflicted a crushing defeat on France. As a result of this victory, the King of England managed to capture the territory of Normandy and the key cities: Caen and Rouen. Over the next five years, Henry managed to capture almost half of all French lands. To stop the seizure of France, King Charles VI concluded with Henry the end of the world, the main condition was the succession of the throne of France. From this moment on, all the kings of England had the title of King of France.Win Henry ended in 1421, when the battle entered the Scottish troops, defeated the British army in the battle of God. In this battle, the British lost their command, because of which they lost the battle. Soon after this, Henry V dies, and his young son rises to the throne.Despite the defeat, the British quickly recovered and already in 1423 responded to the French revenge, defeating them in the Battle of Kravan, again destroying the army, exceeding in number. It was followed by several more important victories for the British army, and France was in a serious, difficult situation.
In 1428 there was a crucial battle at Orleans. It was on the day of this battle that a bright figure appeared - Joan of Arc, who broke through the defense of the British and thereby brought an important victory to France. The following year, the French army, under the command of Jana D'Arc, again defeated the British at the Battle of Pate. This time the numerical advantage of the English played a cruel joke on them, this battle can be called a mirror of the battle of Azankura.In 1431 Jeanne was captured by the British and executed, but this could no longer affect the outcome of the war, the French rallied and continued to aggressively attack. From that moment the French army began to liberate one city after another, displacing the British from their country. The last blow to the power of England was inflicted in 1453 in the Battle of Castiglione. This battle became famous thanks to the first successful application of artillery, which played a key role in battle. The British were completely overwhelmed and all their attempts to reverse the course of the war were completely over.This was the last battle of the hundred-year war, followed by the capitulation of the garrison of Bordeaux - the last key focus of the defense of the British in Gascony.Consequences of the warThe official peace treaty was not signed within a decade, but the war ceased and the British abandoned their claims to the throne. The British failed to achieve their goals, despite the initial success of the campaigns, in their possession there was only one major city of Calais and nearby territories. Due to the defeat in England, the War of the White and the Scarlet Rose began.The role of infantry on the battlefield was increased, and chivalry gradually declined. For the first time regular regular armies appeared, in exchange for the militia. The English bow demonstrated its advantage over the crossbow, but most importantly, it was the beginning of the development of firearms in Western Europe and for the first time artillery firearms were successfully used.
Crusades
Crusades
- the armed movement of the peoples of the Christian West to the Muslim
East, expressed in a number of campaigns for two centuries (from the
end of XI to the end of XIII) with the goal of conquering Palestine and
freeing the Holy Sepulcher from the hands of the infidels; it
is a powerful reaction of Christianity against the then strengthened
power of Islam (under the caliphs) and a grandiose attempt not only to
take hold of the once Christian regions, but also broadly extend the
limits of the domination of the cross, this symbol of the Christian
idea. Participants in these campaigns, the Crusaders, wore a red cross on
their right shoulder with an utterance from the Holy Scripture (Luke
14:27), making the campaigns also called crosses.Causes of the Crusades (briefly)The
causes of the crusades lay in the West European political and economic
conditions of that time: the struggle of feudalism with the increasing
power of kings advanced on the one hand independent feudal lords
searching for independent possessions, the other was the desire of the
kings to rid the country of this restless element; the
townspeople saw the move to distant countries the opportunity to expand
the market, as well as the acquisition of benefits from their
PARTICULAR seniors, farmers hurry to participation in the Crusades to
free from bondage, the pope and all the clergy found in the leading role
they had to play in the religious movement, the possibility of their power-hungry schemes. Finally,
in France, a ruined 48th hungry years in a short period of time 970 for
1040 years, followed by pestilence, for the above reasons, joined the
population of hope found in Palestine, this country is still on the Old
Testament tradition of the current milk and honey, the best economic
conditions .Another reason for the Crusades was a change in the situation in the East. Since
the time of Constantine the Great, who brought again from the Holy
Sepulcher magnificent church in the West, it was a custom to travel to
Palestine, to the holy places, and patronized by the Caliphs these
journeys, deliver the country money and goods, allowing pilgrims to
build a church and a hospital. But
when Palestine fell under the power of the radical Fatimid dynasty by
the end of the 10th century, the cruel oppression of the Christian
pilgrims began, even more intensified after the conquest of Syria and
Palestine by the Seljuks in 1076. Disturbing
news about the desecration of the holy places and of the mistreatment
of pilgrims, caused in Western Europe, the idea of a military campaign
in Asia to liberate the Holy Sepulcher, soon provided in the exercise
due to energetic activity of Pope Urban II of, convene a spiritual
cathedrals and Piacenza and Clermont (1095) in
which the issue of the campaign against the infidels has been answered
in the affirmative, and the thousand-voiced cry of the people present at
the council of Clermont: «Deus lo volt» ( «This is the will of God")
has become the slogan of the Crusaders. The
mood in favor of the motion were trained in France eloquent stories of
Christians in the Holy Land disasters of one of the pilgrims Peter the
Hermit, were also present at the Council of Clermont and inspire the
audience vivid picture of what he had seen in the East
Christian
oppression.
The First Crusade (briefly)
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Speech in the First Crusade was scheduled for August 15, 1096. But before the preparations for it were over, crowds of the common people, led by Peter the Hermit and the French knight Walter Golyak, set off across Germany and Hungary without money and supplies. Sowing along the way to plunder and all kinds of excesses, they were partly exterminated by the Hungarians and Bulgarians, partly reached the Greek Empire. Byzantine emperor Alexei Komnin hurried to transport them through the Bosporus to Asia, where they were finally killed by the Turks in the Battle of Nicaea (October 1096). The first disorderly crowd was followed by others: thus, 15,000 Germans and Lorraine, led by the priest Gottschalk, went through Hungary and, after being beaten by Jews in the Rhine and Danube cities, were exterminated by the Hungarians.The present militia acted in the First Crusade only in the autumn of 1096, in the form of 300,000 well-armed and perfectly disciplined soldiers, led by the most valiant and noble knights of the time: next to Gottfried Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, the chief leader, and his brothers Baldwin and Eustathius (Eustache), shone; Count Hugo Vermandois, brother of the French King Philip I, Duke Robert of Normandy (brother of the English King), Count Robert of Flanders, Raimund of Toulouse and Stefan of Chartres, Bohemond, Prince of Tarentum, Tancred Apulia and others. As a papal viceroy and legate, the army was accompanied by Bishop Ademar of Monteil.The participants of the First Crusade arrived in various ways to Constantinople, where the Greek Emperor Alexei forced them to take the oath of allegiance and the promise to recognize him as a feudal lord of future conquests. In early June 1097 the army of the Crusaders appeared before Nicaea, the capital of the Seljuk Sultan, and after the capture of the latter was subjected to extreme difficulties and hardship. However, they were taken by Antioch, Edessa (1098) and finally on June 15, 1099, Jerusalem, then in the hands of the Egyptian Sultan, unsuccessfully trying to restore his power and shattered on his head under Askalon.At the end of the First Crusade, Gottfried Bouillon was proclaimed the first Jerusalem king, but refused this title, calling himself "the defender of the Holy Sepulcher"; the following year he died, and his brother Baldwin I (1100-1118) succeeded him, having conquered Akka, Berith (Beirut) and Sidon. Baldwin I was succeeded by Baldwin II (1118-31), and the last Fulk (1131-43), under which the kingdom reached its widest extent.Under the influence of the news of the conquest of Palestine in 1101, a new army of crusaders led by the Duke of Wulf of Bavaria from Germany and two others from Italy and France moved to Asia Minor, totaling an army of 260,000 men and exterminated by the Seljuks.
The Second Crusade (briefly)
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In 1144, Edessa was taken away by the Turks, after which Pope Eugene III declared the Second Crusade (1147-1149), freeing all the Crusaders not only from their sins, but at the same time from the responsibilities of their lords. The dreamy preacher Bernard Clairworthy managed, thanks to his irresistible eloquence, to draw to the Second Crusade the King of French Louis VII and Emperor Conrad III of Hohenstaufen. The two armies, composed in total, according to the assurances of the Western chroniclers, about 140,000 platoon riders and a million infantrymen, came out in 1147 and headed through Hungary and Constantinople and Asia Minor. Due to a lack of food, diseases in the troops and after several major defeats, a plan for winning Edessa was abandoned, and the attempted attack on Damascus failed. Both sovereigns returned to their domains, and the Second Crusade ended in complete failure
The Third Crusade (briefly)
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The occasion for the Third Crusade (1189-1192) was the conquest of Jerusalem on October 2, 1187 by the powerful Egyptian sultan Saladin (see article Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin). Three European sovereigns participated in this campaign: Emperor Frederick I of Barbarossa, French King Philip II Augustus and English Richard the Lionheart. The first to enter the Third Crusade was Friedrich, whose army along the way increased to 100,000 people; he chose the path along the Danube, along the road was to overcome the intrigues of the incredulous Greek emperor Isaac Angel, whom only the capture of Adrianople prompted an easy passage to the crusaders and help them to cross into Asia Minor. Here Friedrich defeated the Turkish troops in two battles, but soon after that he drowned while crossing the river Kalikadn (Salef). His son, Frederick, led the army further through Antioch to Akka, where he found other crusaders, but soon died. The city of Akka in 1191 surrendered to surrender to the French and English kings, but the discord between them opened up the French king to return to their homeland. Richard continued to pursue the Third Crusade, but despairing in the hope of conquering Jerusalem in 1192 concluded with Saladin a truce for three years and three months, according to which Jerusalem remained in the possession of the Sultan, and Christians received a coastal strip from Tire to Jaffa, as well as the right of free visiting the Holy Sepulcher.
The Fourth Crusade (briefly)
The fourth crusade (1202-1204) was originally intended for Egypt, but its participants agreed to help the exiled Emperor Isaac the Angel in his quest to ascend again to the Byzantine throne, which was crowned with success. Isaac soon died, and the Crusaders, deviating from their goal, continued the war and took Constantinople, after which the leader of the Fourth Crusade, Count Baldwin of Flanders, was elected emperor of the new Latin Empire, which existed, however, only 57 years (1204-1261).
The Fifth Crusade (briefly)
Not taking into account the strange Crusade of the children in 1212, caused by the desire to experience the reality of God's will, the Fifth Crusade can be called the campaign of King Andrew II of Hungary and Duke Leopold VI of Austria to Syria (1217-1221). At first, it was sluggish, but after the arrival of new reinforcements from the West, the Crusaders moved to Egypt and took the key to access this country from the sea - the city of Damietta. However, the attempt to capture the large Egyptian center of Mansour has not succeeded. The Knights left Egypt, and the Fifth Crusade ended with the restoration of the former borders.
The Sixth Crusade (briefly)
Sixth Crusade (1228-1229) made the German Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, who found support in rytsaryahTevtonskogo awards and has achieved from the Egyptian Sultan al-Kamil (threatened the Sultan of Damascus), a ten-year truce with the right of ownership of Jerusalem and almost all lands once conquered by the Crusaders. At the end of the Sixth Crusade, Friedrich II was crowned by the Jerusalem crown. Violation of the truce by some pilgrims led again to the struggle for Jerusalem and its final loss in 1244, as a result of the attack of the Turkish tribe of the Khorezmians, who had been ousted from the Caspian region by the Mongols during the movement of the latter to Europe.
The Seventh Crusade (briefly)
The fall of Jerusalem was caused by the Seventh Crusade (1248-1254) of Louis IX of France, who, during a grave illness, vowed to fight for the Holy Sepulcher. In 1249 he besieged Damietta, but was captured with a large part of his army. By cleansing Damietta and paying a large foreclosure, Louis was freed and, remaining in Akka, was engaged in the provision of Christian possessions in Palestine, until the death of his mother Blanqui (regent of France) did not recall him to his homeland.
Eighth Crusade (briefly)
Because of the complete futility of the Seventh Crusade same king of France, Louis IX, Saint undertook in 1270 goduVosmoy (and last) Crusade to Tunis, allegedly with the intention to convert to Christianity, the prince of that country, but in reality in order to win over Tunisia for his brother, Charles of Anjou. At the siege of the capital of Tunisia, Louis the Sacred (1270) died of pestilence, which destroyed most of his troops.
The End of the Crusades
In 1286 he went to Turkey, Antioch, in 1289 - the Lebanese Tripoli, and in 1291 - Akka, the last major possession of the Christians in Palestine, after which they were forced to abandon the rest of the holdings, and the entire Holy Land joined again in the hands of the Moslems. Thus ended the Crusades, which cost the Christians so many losses and did not reach the originally intended goal.
The Results and Consequences of the Crusades (briefly)
But they did not remain without a profound influence on the whole storehouse of social and economic life of Western European peoples. A consequence of the Crusades can be considered as the increasing power and importance of the popes as their main instigators, hereinafter - the rise of royal power due to the loss of many feudal lords, the appearance of independence of the urban communities that have received thanks to the impoverishment of the nobility, to buy relief from their rulers PARTICULAR; The introduction in Europe of handicrafts and arts borrowed from the Eastern peoples. The results of the Crusades were an increase in the class of free farmers in the West, thanks to the liberation from serfdom of the peasants who participated in the campaigns. The Crusades contributed to the success of trade, opening to it new ways to the East; fostered the development of geographical knowledge; expanding the scope of mental and moral interests, they enriched poetry with new stories. Another important result of the Crusades was the nomination of the secular knightly class to the historical scene, which constituted an ennobling element of medieval life; The consequence was also the emergence of spiritual and knightly orders (the Ioannites, the Templars and the Teutons), which played an important role in history.
The Livonian War of 1558-1583
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The best that history gives us is its enthusiasm.
GoetheThe Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1583. During the war, Ivan the Terrible sought to gain access to and seize the port cities of the Baltic Sea, which should significantly improve the economic situation in Russia, by improving trade. In this article we will talk briefly about the Levon war, as well as all its aspects.
The beginning of the Livonian War
The sixteenth century was a period of uninterrupted wars. The Russian state sought to protect itself from its neighbors and return lands that had previously been part of Ancient Rus.
Wars were conducted in several directions:
The eastern direction was marked by the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, as well as the beginning of the development of Siberia.
The southern direction of foreign policy represented an age-old struggle with the Crimean Khanate.
The western direction is the events of the long, heavy and very bloody Livonian War (1558-1583), which will be discussed.
Livonia is a region in the eastern Baltic. On the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia. In those days there was a state created as a result of crusading conquests. As a state entity, it was weak because of national contradictions (the Baltic people were put to feudal dependence), a religious split (the Reformation penetrated there), a struggle for power among the top.
The reasons for the outbreak of the Livonian War
Ivan the Terrible launched the Livonian War against the backdrop of the success of his foreign policy in other areas. The Russian prince-king sought to push the state's borders to the reserve in order to gain access to the shipping areas and ports of the Baltic Sea. And the Livonian Order gave the Russian Tsar the ideal reasons for the outbreak of the Livonian War:
Refusal to pay tribute. In 1503 the draft of the Livonian Order and Russia signed a document according to which the first undertook to pay the city of Yuryev an annual tribute. In 1557 the Order of this obligation was individually eliminated.
Weakening of the foreign influence of the Order against the backdrop of social disagreements.Speaking of the reason, it should be emphasized that Livonia separated Russia from the sea, blocked trade. In the seizure of Livonia, large merchants and nobles were interested, who wanted to assign new lands. But the main reason can be distinguished ambitions Ivan IV the Terrible. The victory was to strengthen his influence, so he waged war, ignoring the circumstances and the meager opportunities of the country for his own greatness.The course of the war and major eventsThe Livonian War was waged with great interruptions and historically divided into four stages.
The main stages of the Livonian War
The first stage of the warAt the first stage (1558-1561), the fighting was relatively successful for Russia. The Russian army in the first months captured Derpt, Narva and was close to the capture of Riga and Revel. The Livonian Order was on the brink of death and requested an armistice. Ivan the Terrible agreed to stop the war for six months, but this was a huge mistake. During this time, the Order passed under the protectorate of Lithuania and Poland, as a result of which Russia received not one of the weak, but two strong opponents.The most dangerous enemy for Russia was Lithuania, which at that time could in some respects exceed the Russian kingdom in its potential. Moreover, the Baltic peasants were dissatisfied with the newly arrived Russian landlords, the brutality of the war, the brutality and other disasters.The second stage of the warThe second stage of the war (1562-1570) began with the fact that the new owners of the Livonian lands demanded that Ivan the Terrible withdraw their troops and abandon Livonia. In fact, it was proposed that the Livonian War cease, and Russia remained with nothing in its results. After the tsar's refusal to do so, the war for Russia finally turned into an adventure. The war with Lithuania lasted 2 years and was unsuccessful for the Russian Kingdom. The conflict could be continued only in the conditions of the oprichnina, especially since the boyars were against the continuation of hostilities. Earlier, for discontent with the Livonian War, in 1560 the tsar dispersed the "Elected Rada".It was at this stage of the war that Poland and Lithuania united in a single state - Rzeczpospolita. It was a strong power, with which everyone had to reckon, without exception.The third stage of the warThe third stage (1570-1577) is a battle of local significance between Russia and Sweden over the territory of modern Estonia. They ended without any meaningful results for both sides. All battles were of a local nature and had no significant effect on the course of the war.The fourth stage of the warAt the fourth stage of the Livonian War (1577-1583), Ivan IV again captured the whole of the Baltics, but soon fortune turned against the tsar and Russian troops were routed. The new king of united Poland and Lithuania (Rzeczpospolita) Stefan Batory drove Ivan the Terrible out of the Baltic region, and even managed to seize a number of cities already in the territory of the Russian Empire (Polotsk, Velikie Luki, etc.). The fighting was accompanied by terrible bloodshed. The aid of Rzecz Pospolita since 1579 was provided by Sweden, which was very successful in capturing Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye.From the complete defeat, Russia defended the defense of Pskov (from August 1581). For 5 months of siege, the garrison and residents of the city repulsed 31 attempts to storm, weakening the army of Batory.
The end of the war and its outcome
Results of the Livonian War
The Yam-Zapol truce between the Russian kingdom and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1582 put an end to a long and unnecessary war. Russia refused from Livonia. The coast of the Gulf of Finland was lost. He was captured by Sweden, with whom in 1583 the Plusus world was signed.Thus, it is possible to single out the following reasons for the defeat of the Russian state, which sums up the results of the Liiv war:
adventurism and ambitions of the tsar - Russia could not wage war simultaneously with three powerful states;
the pernicious influence of oprichnina, economic ruin, the Tatar attack.
Deep economic crisis within the country, which erupted in the 3rd and 4th stages of military operations.Despite the negative outcome, it was the Livonian War that determined the direction of Russia's foreign policy for many years to come - to gain access to the Baltic Sea.
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